We have discussed how
masculinity norms can spread through institutional socialization, generational transmission,
26To enable direct comparison between adherence and normative beliefs, we restrict both indices to the three
items that cover the same domains: help avoidance, importance of winning, and acceptance of violence.
24
as well as peer networks, and often persist through systematic misperceptions about social expectations. Lastly, using novel data from 70 countries, we documented five key stylized facts:
universal gender differences in adherence to masculinity norms, declining adherence with age,
partial overlap with gender role norms, strong behavioral predictive power, and widespread
pluralistic ignorance.
Looking ahead, we propose three research priorities. First, we encourage economists to
more explicitly incorporate masculinity norms when studying men’s socioeconomic outcomes
and gender gaps. For example, research could examine the causal role of masculinity norms in
shaping occupational sorting, the division of labor within the household, men’s and women’s
demand for health services, and political attitudes.
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