Lekker zinloze toevoeging aan een dergelijk artikel. Dat creationisten wat cherrypicken in het fossielenbestand lijkt me niet zo relevant.quote:“VEEL CREATIONISTEN ZIEN DE ICHTHYOSAURIËR ALS HÉT BEWIJS DAT DE EVOLUTIETHEORIE NIET KLOPT”
Phys.orgquote:Game theory analysis shows how evolution favors cooperation's collapse
Last year, University of Pennsylvania researchers Alexander J. Stewart and Joshua B. Plotkin published a mathematical explanation for why cooperation and generosity have evolved in nature. Using the classical game theory match-up known as the Prisoner's Dilemma, they found that generous strategies were the only ones that could persist and succeed in a multi-player, iterated version of the game over the long term.
But now they've come out with a somewhat less rosy view of evolution. With a new analysis of the Prisoner's Dilemma played in a large, evolving population, they found that adding more flexibility to the game can allow selfish strategies to be more successful. The work paints a dimmer but likely more realistic view of how cooperation and selfishness balance one another in nature.
"It's a somewhat depressing evolutionary outcome, but it makes intuitive sense," said Plotkin, a professor in Penn's Department of Biology in the School of Arts & Sciences, who coauthored the study with Stewart, a postdoctoral researcher in his lab. "We had a nice picture of how evolution can promote cooperation even amongst self-interested agents and indeed it sometimes can, but, when we allow mutations that change the nature of the game, there is a runaway evolutionary process, and suddenly defection becomes the more robust outcome."
Their study, which will appear in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, examines the outcomes of the Prisoner's Dilemma, a scenario used in the field of game theory to understand how individuals decide whether to cooperate or not. In the dilemma, if both players cooperate, they both receive a payoff. If one cooperates and the other does not, the cooperating player receives the smallest possible payoff, and the defecting player the largest. If both players do not cooperate, they both receive a payoff, but it is less than what they would gain if both had cooperated. In other words, it pays to cooperate, but it can pay even more to be selfish.
Stewart and Plotkin's previous study examined an iterated and evolutionary version of the Prisoner's Dilemma, in which a population of players matches up against one another repeatedly. The most successful players "reproduce" more and pass along their winning strategies to the next generation. The researchers found that, in such a scenario, cooperative and even forgiving strategies won out, in part because "cheaters" couldn't win against themselves.
In the new investigation, Stewart and Plotkin added a new twist. Now, not only could players alter their strategy—whether or not they cooperate—but they could also vary the payoffs they receive for cooperating.
This, Plotkin said, may more accurately reflect the balancing of risk and reward that occurs in nature, where organisms decide not only how often they cooperate but also the extent to which they cooperate.
Initially, as in their earlier study, cooperative strategies found success.
"But when cooperative strategies predominate, payoffs will rise as well," Stewart said. "With higher and higher payoffs at stake, the temptation to defect also rises. In a sense the cooperators are paving the way for their own demise."
Indeed, Stewart and Plotkin found that the population of players reached a tipping point after which defection was the predominant strategy in the population.
In a second analysis, they allowed the payoffs to vary outside the order set by the Prisoner's Dilemma. Instead of unilateral defection winning the greatest reward, for example, it could be that mutual cooperation reaped the greatest payoff, the situation described by a game known as Stag Hunt. Or, mutual defection could generate the lowest possible reward, as described by the game theory model known as the Snowdrift or Hawk-Dove game.
What they found was that, again, there was an initial collapse in cooperative strategies. But, as the population continued to play and evolve, players also altered the payoffs so that they were playing a different game, either Snowdrift or Stag Hunt.
"So we see complicated dynamics when we allow the full range of payoffs to evolve," Plotkin said. "One of the interesting results is that the Prisoner's Dilemma game itself is unstable and is replaced by other games. It is as if evolution would like to avoid the dilemma altogether."
Stewart and Plotkin say their new conception of how strategies and payoffs co-evolve in populations is ripe for testing, with the marine bacteria Vibrionaceae as a potential model. In these bacterial populations, the researchers noted, individuals cooperate by sharing a protein they extrude that allows them to metabolize iron. But the bacteria can possess mutations that alter whether they produce the protein and how much they generate, whether and how much they cooperate, as well as mutations that affect how efficiently they can take up the protein, their payoff. The Penn researchers said a "natural experiment" using these or other microbes could put their theory to the test, to see exactly when and how selfishness can pay off.
"After this study, we end up with a less sunny view of the evolution of cooperation," Stewart said. "But it rings true that it's not the case that evolution always tends towards happily ever after."
quote:When Charles Darwin published The Origin of Species 150 years ago he consciously avoided discussing the origin of life. However, analysis of some other texts written by Darwin, and of the correspondence he exchanged with friends and colleagues demonstrates that he took for granted the possibility of a natural emergence of the first life forms. As shown by notes from the pages he excised from his private notebooks, as early as 1837 Darwin was convinced that “the intimate relation of Life with laws of chemical combination, & the universality of latter render spontaneous generation not improbable”.
Like many of his contemporaries, Darwin rejected the idea that putrefaction of preexisting organic compounds could lead to the appearance of organisms. Although he favored the possibility that life could appear by natural processes from simple inorganic compounds, his reluctance to discuss the issue resulted from his recognition that at the time it was impossible to undertake the experimental study of the emergence of life.
De rest op NU.nlquote:Hyena's met een hoge sociale status leven vermoedelijk bovengemiddeld lang. Dat zou blijken uit nieuw wetenschappelijk onderzoek.
Als hyena's hoog in de hiërarchie van hun roedel staan, zijn hun telomeren gemiddeld genomen langer dan die van hun soortgenoten .
Dat melden onderzoekers van Michigan State University in het wetenschappelijk tijdschrift Current Biology.
Telomeren zijn de uiteinden van chromosomen. De stukjes DNA bepalen hoe vaak een cel zich deelt en hebben waarschijnlijk grote invloed op de gezondheid en levensduur van dieren.
quote:Abstract
Telomeres are regarded as important biomarkers of ageing and serve as useful tools in revealing how stress acts at the cellular level. However, the effects of social and ecological factors on telomere length remain poorly understood, particularly in free-ranging mammals. Here, we investigated the influences of within-group dominance rank and group membership on telomere length in wild adult spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta). We found large effects of both factors; high-ranking hyenas exhibited significantly greater mean telomere length than did subordinate animals, and group membership significantly predicted mean telomere length within high-ranking females. We further inquired whether prey availability mediates the observed effect of group membership on telomere length, but this hypothesis was not supported. Interestingly, adult telomere length was not predicted by age. Our work shows for the first time, to the best of our knowledge, the effects of social rank on telomere length in a wild mammal and enhances our understanding of how social and ecological variables may contribute to organismal senescence.
University of Floridaquote:Two most destructive termite species forming superswarms in South Florida, UF study finds
Two of the most destructive termite species in the world -- responsible for much of the $40 billion in economic loss caused by termites annually -- are now swarming simultaneously in South Florida, creating hybrid colonies that grow quickly and have the potential to migrate to other states.
[...]
UF scientists previously thought the two termite species had distinct swarming seasons that prevented them from interacting. Their new research indicates not only an overlap of seasons where the two species are interbreeding; it shows that male Asian termites prefer to mate with Formosan females rather than females of their own species, increasing the risk of hybridization.
quote:Oldest stone tools pre-date earliest humans
They were unearthed from the shores of Lake Turkana in Kenya, and date to 3.3 million years ago.
They are 700,000 years older than any tools found before, even pre-dating the earliest humans in the Homo genus.
The find, reported in Nature, suggests that more ancient species, such as Australopithecus afarensis or Kenyanthropus platyops, may have been more sophisticated than was thought.
"They are significantly earlier than anything that has been found previously," said Dr Nick Taylor, from the National Centre of Scientific Research (CNRS) in France and the University of Leiden in the Netherlands.
"It's really quite astonishing to think what separates the previous oldest site and this site is 700,000 years of time. It's monumental."
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